Model Paper: 2
HISTORY
CBSE - XII

<< Model Paper 1

Q.13. " Treaty of Versailles was a dictated treaty". Comment. (5 Marks)

Ans.13 The First World War came to an end in November 1918 AD Soon after, a peace conference was held in Paris to decide the terms of the treaty after the war. The peace treaty which Germany was forced to sign with the victorious powers is commonly known as the treaty of Versailles. It was signed at the palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919 AD. It was the treaty of Versailles, which sowed seeds of the Second World War.

The treaty of Versailles made Germany guilty of the war. She was compelled to cede her territory of Poland, Denmark, and Belgium etc. to the victorious powers. A new state of Poland was carved out of German territory. Denzing was made a free city. Germany was further debarred from joining with Austria. The victorious French took the German territory of Alsace and Loraine. It also got the right to exploit the rich coal mines of Saar, which came under German influence. Most of German colonies in Africa such as, Togoland, Congo, and Cameroons were redistributed among British and the French. The military strength of Germany was reduced. Last, but not the lease, Germany was made to accept the war guilt and had to pay heavy sum of 6,600million dollars as war indemnity to the allies. The provisions of the treaty were, obviously very harsh. The Germ
Ans were insulted and retaliated by emerging a major fascist power under the leadership of Hitler who led the world to the Second World War.

Or

Describe the policy of the Second International on the question of Colonies, Militarism and War.

Ans.13 The Second International founded at a Congress in Paris in 1889. Colonialism, Militarization and War were the three major issues, which all the socialist parties and the Second International were concerned about. There were differences within the parties on these issues. Some advocated that the right of every nation to freedom and independence was a fundamental concept of socialism and that colonialism should be totally rejected. Others, while condemning capitalist colonial policies, held that under a socialist government colonialism could play a positive civilising role.

The socialist parties of Europe including those of imperialist countries demarcated themselves from the colonial policies of their governments. The Second International, at its Congress held at Stuttgart in Germany in 1907, unequivocally endorsed a resolution which committed the socialist members of Parliament to oppose the robbery and subjugation of colonial peoples and to fight for reforms which would better their lot, protect their rights and 'do everything possible to educate them for independence', condemned militarism and wars by stating that 'wars are part of very nature of capitalism' and declared that the 'struggle against militarism was inseparable from the struggle for socialism.

Since their inception, the socialist movement had viewed war as an extreme expression of the evil of the existing system of society and a barbaric instrument with which the ruling classes of various countries tried to promote their economic and political power.

Q14 Describe the policy of U.S.A. towards the First World War when it broke out. When and why did this policy change? (5 Marks)

Ans.14 At the beginning of the 20th century the United States was the most powerful country in the world. With this USA had the potential to decide the outcome of the First World War. However, in 1914, the country had no overseas alliances and on 19th August, President Woodrow Wilson declared a policy of strict neutrality.

Although the USA had strong ties with Britain, Wilson was concerned about the large number of people in the country who had been born in Germany and Austria. Other influential political leaders argued strongly in favour of the USA maintaining its isolationist policy. The war helped the USA economy with exported goods to Allied countries increasing from $825 in 1914 to $3.2 billion in 1916. This made it possible for Britain and France to keep fighting the war against the Central Powers and this influenced Germany's decision to announce its unrestricted submarine warfare policy.

Opinion against Germany hardened after the German U-boats had sunk the British ship Lusitania in which 128 Americ
Ans along with others were there. This aroused anti-German feeling and Wilson announced an increase in the size of the US armed forces to meet any eventuality. Economic considerations turned them more in favour of the Entente countries.
On 31st January 1917, Germany announced a new submarine offensive. Wilson responded by breaking off diplomatic relations with Germany and USA decided to enter the 'war to end wars' and to 'make the world safe for democracy' on 6th April 1917.

Or

What is meant by the Balk
Ans? Why did it become a source of tensions and conflicts in Europe?

Ans. At no point in history has it been easy to define the Balk
Ans in any other than geographic terms. In early 20th century,the Balk
Ans represented the countries like Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina etc.. These countries had been under the rule of Ottoman Turks. However, after the dismemberment of the Ottoman rule in 19th century, there were revolts by various ethnic nationalities for independence. Throughout the 19th century, there were wars between the Ottoman and Russian empire. Russia's attempts to extend her control over the Ottoman territories in Europe were halted by other European countries

In the 20th century, the Russian Czars encouraged Pan-Slav movement, which was based on the theory that all the Slavs of Eastern Europe were one people. Many areas in Austria-Hungary were inhabited by the Slavs, Russia, therefore, encouraged movements both against the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. The major Balkan country, Serbia, led the movement for uniting the areas inhabited by the Slavs in the Ottoman Empire as well as in Austria-Hungary. The Serbian nationalism was encouraged by Russia.
Other major European powers were alarmed at the growth of Russian influence in the Balk
Ans. They wanted to check the Russian influence, while Austria-Hungary had pl
Ans of exp
Ansion in this area. The support of Germany to Austria-Hungary restrained Russia to go to war when Bosnia-Herzegovina was annexed in 1908 by Austria-Hungary. This intensified the bitterness, resulting in Balkan Wars in 1912-13.Corresponding to Pan-Slav movement; there was a Pan-German movement which aimed at the exp
Ansion of Germany all over central Europe and in the Balk
Ans.Other European countries resented the growing power of Russia and Germany in the Balkh
Ans.Thus the Balkh
Ans emerged as a major source of tension and conflict in Europe which finally led to the First World War in 1914.AD.

Q15.What is meant by the 'Policy of Appeasement'? (2 Marks)

Ans.15 The policy of conciliating the aggressive power at the cost of another country. Between 1931 and 1938 the Fascist powers like Germany, Italy and Japan did many aggressive acts, but the western powers did nothing to counter act them. Germany, Italy and Japan had claimed that they were fighting against communism. As such the western countries thought that the Fascist countries would get them rid of the dangers of socialism and communism, so, they followed the policy of appeasement.

Q16 What were the factors, which brought Japan, Italy and Germany together? (8 Marks)

Ans.16 Italy suffered badly during the First World War and incurred heavy debt. Italy has been promised extra land by Britain and France during the war, and it was not adhered by either of the two. This made it look as if the Italian Government has been ignored. The Governments after the war were weak. They were coalitions and were not able to take decisions to meet the demands of the situation.Under this state of affairs Mussolini usurped power by advocating the me
Ans of force. He was the first of the Dictators who came to power in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s. From 1935 Mussolini came more and more under the influence of Hitler. He followed an aggrandizement policy like Hitler by invading Abyssinia in 1935. In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini signed Rome-Berlin Axis on political cooperation.

The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 that imposed many restrictions on the military, economic and political spheres of Germany was an important reason for Germany to disregard it as it crippled its progress. The failure of Weimer Republic which was unable rise to the occasion to deal with the aftermath war torn situation, the heavy toll of Great Depression that brought rise in the levels of unemployment level, that made the middle class to look about desperately for someone to save them from crisis made the Germ
Ans to stir up the universal German loathing for the Treaty of Versailles.

The post war treatment meted out to Germany in the hands of Allies like the construction of frontiers, the loss of its colonies, markets, shipping and colossal demand for reparation, the occupation of Ruhr, much else disgruntled the German population.After the coming of Hitler in 1933, his quest for power, to give Germany a powerful armed force to conquer 'living space' and subjugate the continent. These factors brought Germany and Italy together.

Many factors were responsible for the strong imperialist and militarist drive that emerged in Japan at the beginning of the 20th century. The whirlwind of nationalism of Japan was steered towards industrialisation and imperialism, where the weak and cumbersome government could not withstand. By 1936, the military controlled the government. Now she abandoned the general policy of cooperation with the western powers and chose to pursue its own destiny in East Asia. In the same year Japan signed an Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany against the Third International. The control over Manchuria by Japan in 1931. In 1938 Japan proclaimed her pl
Ans for a 'New Order' for East Asia, claiming that the Open Door no longer applied in China. USA objected this and strengthened her hold over Pearl Harbour.

To conclude, the aggrandizement policy of Italy and Germany together combined with the wrath of Japan against USA made Japan to sign a Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy in 1940, in which the signatories pledged to aid one another if attacked by a power not currently involved in the European War or the fighting in China.

OR

Write a note on Hitler's foreign policy.

Ans. Hitler kept tight control over foreign affairs, formulating himself both the strategy and the tactics calculated to achieve his goals. The immediate objective was to re-establish Germany's position in world affairs, by this Hitler meant ending the humiliations attending the Treaty of Versailles, such as the demilitarised Rhineland and the limitations on German armaments. The larger objective, the one he had spoken about since his entry into politics in the early 1920s, was the conquest for Germany of Lebensraum. Hitler believed that this space needed to be acquired in the east, at the expense of the Soviets, so as to secure for Germany the Ukrainian "breadbasket" and open up vast territories for German colonisation. Hitler found justification for such conquests in his notions of German racial superiority over the Slavic peoples who inhabited the lands he coveted. Control of this territory was to become the foundation for Germany's economic and military domination of Europe and eventually, perhaps, of the world.

No such domination or exp
Ansion was possible without war, of course, and Hitler did not shrink from its implications. His rearming of Germany, begun in secret in 1933, was made public in March 1935 when he announced the creation of an air force and the reintroduction of general military conscription. In 1936, he moved German forces into the demilitarised Rhineland. Versailles was dead. Neither the British nor the French had lifted a finger in its defense, choosing instead to sign agreements expressly negating the terms of Versailles. As evidence of his pacific intentions he signed in January 1934 a 10-year Non-aggression pact with Poland. A truer picture of his intentions became evident in July 1934, however, when Hitler encouraged the Nazi party in Austria to attempt an overthrow of the government of Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss.

Hitler made two dramatic foreign policy moves in 1938 that helped clarify to the world the extent of his less-than-pacific intentions. In March he annexed Austria to the Reich, justifying the move as a fulfilment of the principle of German national self-determination. Britain and France stood by quietly at this additional repudiation of the Versailles treaty. Next, Hitler engineered a diplomatic crisis with Czechoslovakia, claiming Czech mistreatment of its German minority in the Sudetenland.

On March 15, 1939, Hitler seized what remained of Czechoslovakia, reshaping its pieces into a Bohemian and Moravian protectorate and a nominally independent state of Slovakia. Within a week he annexed from Lithuania the city of Memel and the surrounding countryside, territory lost to Germany as a consequence of Versailles.

In late May 1939 he signed his Pact of Steel with Mussolini. Then came the most sensational diplomatic rapprochement of the 20th century. Shortly after signing the pact with Italy, Hitler put out feelers to Stalin about the possibility of dividing eastern Europe, Poland included, into German and Soviet spheres of influence. These negotiations led to the notorious German-Soviet Non-aggression Pact of Aug. 24, 1939, a pact that secretly sealed Poland's doom and delayed Hitler's unbending determination to conquer Lebensraum from the Soviets for a few years. Thus prepared, on Sept. 1, 1939, Hitler launched his invasion of Poland. Two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany.

Q17 On an outline Map of Africa locate the following:
The countries in Africa which won independence between 1945 - 1960.
(6 Marks)

Ans.

Or

On an outline Map of Europe mark any three countries which were members of NATO.

Ans. 17

Q18. What were the causes for the outbreak of the First World War?
(5 Marks)

Ans. 18The First World War which broke out in 1914 AD was a multi faceted war. No single cause or event could be regarded as the sole cause of the war, which engulfed the whole world. One of the most important reason, which led the Capitalist nations to war, was Imperialism .The mutual struggle among the Imperialist countries such as England, France, Holland, Russia, Germany, Italy etc. was linked with the conquest of the regions of Asia and Africa. Very often the disputes among these countries were solved by mutual understanding but sometimes due to conflict, warlike situations developed.

Countries like Japan, Germany and Italy were late in joining the Imperialist bandwagon. Consequently, when these countries came to power due to Industrial revolution and political and economic stability in their countries, they were not left with much choice to select colonies as most of lucrative territories in Asia and Africa were already under control of France, Britain, Holland and Russia. Thus a war was inevitable. The Franco -German rivalry over Morocco and the Anglo -German rivalry were over the colonies.
The world was soon divided in power blocs as Germ
Ans under Bismarck and the Japanese started building their naval and military power. Italy and Austria joined them. This alliance is called as Triple Alliance which was formed in1882 AD. The Russi
Ans, French and the British also joined in a pact known as the Triple Entete formed in 1907.
The gunpowder of the war was ready. The murder of Austrian prince, Archduke Ferdinand by a Serbia in June 1914 provided the spark, which led the World to War.

Or

What were the causes for the defeat of the Germ
Ans and their Allies in Second World War?

Ans. Both Germany and Japan have to share the blame, more so Germany. It was inconceivable to Hitler and Russia, Britain and the United States could ever forget their political differences and work together. Failing to see this possibility Hitler attacked Russia. Not only did he then have to face the combined power of the Big Three, but also he opened to attack Germany's eastern border, which was safe as long as Russia stayed neutral. The unflinching determination of the Big Three combined, made Germany to taste the doom. As the war progressed Hitler showed a remarkable lack of political fore sight and began to lose the confidence not only of the general German public but also of his military leaders. Hitler failed to take advantage of Britain's weak condition in 1940. Instead of invading England after the downfall of France, he gave her time to strengthen herself. Thus he lost a possible chance of bringing the war to end in favour of Germany.

Another reason for losing the war was the treatment given to the people of those countries conquered by Germany and Japan. By terrorising the people they not only encouraged them to fight but also shocked the rest of the world into aiding the Allies against them. Finally, Japan's entry into the war, and her attack on Pearl Harbour, the strike-back of USA and her success in splitting the atom before the Germ
Ans, put the Allies into a favourable position for bringing the war to an end on their terms.

Q.19. What is meant by "Truman Doctrine and the Policy of Brinkm
Anship"? (5 Marks)

Ans.19 After the end of the Second World War, Winston Churchill fired the first shot for the Cold War at the University of Fulton in US. An ideological demarcation of the world was made, under which Eastern Europe and the Western Europe were brought. The US decision to intervene in the Greek Civil War may be considered as formally ushering in the Cold War. President Truman, while asking the Congress for $400 million as military and economic aid to the Greek government, made a policy statement on March 12, 1947 was called 'Truman Doctrine'. This proclaimed communism as the threat to the "Free World", which the US, as the head of the "Free World", would not allow to succeed anywhere in the world. This Doctrine became the basis of the foreign policy of the United States for about four decades and every conflict in the world was seen in terms of a struggle between the US and the Soviet Union.

In 1959 the US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles came out with the 'Doctrine of Brinkm
Anship' which meant pushing the Soviet Union on the brink of war to force her to grant concessions. This is nothing but the extension of the 'Truman Doctrine' in the US foreign policy to contend the exp
Ansion of Communism.

Or

Describe the main developments in the history of Vietnam from
1945-75.

Ans. The end of World War II opened the way for the return of French rule to Indochina. Despite the ties he had forged within the American Intelligence community, and his professed respect for democratic ideals, Ho Chi Minh was unable to convince Washington to recognise the legitimacy of his independence movement against the French. The French and the US forces expected to defeat the Vietnamese armies easily but after eight years of fighting and $2.5 billion in U.S. aid, the French lost a crucial battle at Dienbienphu - and with it, their Asian empire.
With a goal of stopping the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, America replaced France in South Vietnam - supporting autocratic President Ngo Dinh Diem until his own generals turned against him in a coup that brought political chaos to Saigon.

With Ho Chi Minh determination to reunite Vietnam, Lyndon Baines Johnson determination to prevent it and South Vietnam on the verge of collapse, the stage was set for massive escalation of the undeclared Vietnam War.
In two years, the Johnson Administration's troop build-up dispatched 1.5 million Americ
Ans to Vietnam to fight a war they found baffling, tedious, exciting, deadly and unforgettable.

IWhile American and Vietnamese soldiers continued to clash in battle, diplomats in Paris argued about making peace. After more than four years, they reached an accord that proved to be a preface to further bloodshed.
Through troubled years of controversy and violence, US casualties mounted, victory remained elusive, and American opinion moved from general approval to general dissatisfaction with the Vietnam War. South Vietnamese leaders believed that America would never let them go down to defeat - a belief that died as North Vietnamese tanks smashed into Saigon on April 30, 1975, and the long war ended with South Vietnam's surrender.

Q.20. Write a brief note on Cuban Missile Crisis.(8 Marks)

Ans.20 The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war. The United States armed forces were at their highest state of readiness ever and Soviet field commanders in Cuba were prepared to use battlefield nuclear weapons to defend the island if it was invaded. Luckily, thanks to the bravery of two men, President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khruschev, war was averted.

In 1962, the Soviet Union was desperately behind the United States in the arms race. Soviet missiles that were only powerful enough to be launched against Europe but U.S. missiles were capable of striking the entire Soviet Union. In late April 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev conceived the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba. A deployment in Cuba would double the Soviet strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to a potential U.S. attack against the Soviet Union.

Meanwhile, Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend his island nation from an attack by the U.S. Ever since the failed Bay Of Pigs invasion in 1961, Castro felt a second attack was inevitable. Consequently, he approved of Khrushchev's plan to place missiles on the island. In the summer of 1962 the Soviet Union worked quickly and secretly to build its missile installations in Cuba.

For the United States, the crisis began on October 15, 1962 when reconnaissance photographs revealed Soviet missiles under construction in Cuba. Early the next day, President John Kennedy was informed of the missile installations. Kennedy immediately organized the EX COMM, a group of his twelve most important advisors to handle the crisis. After seven days of guarded and intense debate within the upper echelons of government, Kennedy concluded to impose a naval quarantine around Cuba. He wished to prevent the arrival of more Soviet offensive weapons on the island. On October 22, Kennedy announced the discovery of the missile installations to the public and his decision to quarantine the island. He also proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be regarded as an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union and demanded that the Soviets remove all of their offensive weapons from Cuba.

Then on the 26th October, EX-COMM heard from Khrushchev in an impassioned letter. He proposed removing Soviet missiles and personnel if the U.S. would guarantee not to invade Cuba. October 27 was the worst day of the crisis. A U-2 was shot down over Cuba and EX-COMM received a second letter from Khrushchev demanding the removal of U.S. missiles in Turkey in exchange for Soviet missiles in Cuba. Attorney General Robert Kennedy suggested ignoring the second letter and contacted Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin to tell him of the U.S. agreement with the first.
Tensions finally began to ease on October 28 when Khrushchev announced that he would dismantle the installations and return the missiles to the Soviet Union, expressing his trust that the United States would not invade Cuba. Further negotiations were held to implement the October 28 agreement, including a United States demand that Soviet light bombers be removed from Cuba, and specifying the exact form and conditions of United States assurances not to invade Cuba. Hence, the crises averted.

OR

Q. Describe the main features of the system of apartheid and the development that led to its collapse in South Africa.

Ans. The Republic of South Africa since 1961 was manned by a government, which was considered as the most oppressive regimes in the world in the twentieth century. It was under the exclusive control of white minority practising the worst form of racism. Under the system the apartheid established in South Africa, all people were classified and separated on a separate area. The non-Whites over 80 percent of the population, were denied the right to vote, strikes were banned. Each group had to live in a separate area. There were separate schools and universities, separate theatres, separate shopping centres, separate coaches in trains for whites and blacks and others. Mixed marriages were declared illegal and all dissent was banned under what was called the Suppression of Communism Act. The best lands in the country were under the control of the Whites who had all the economic and political power.

The system of apartheid created ripples throughout the world and most countries banned all relation with South Africa. The United Nation called for the imposition of military and economic sanctions against South Africa and under pressure from world opinion and from their own people, the Western countries also began to apply these sanctions. In 1960, resorting to brute force dispersed an apartheid rally and in the subsequent years this state of affairs went on continuously. The African National Congress which was formed in 1912, adopted "The Freedom Carter" that enunciates equality on par with Whites in all spheres of life. In the course of time the ANC withered its non-violent struggle and resorted to armed struggle under the leadership of Nelson Mandela.

With her almost total isolation in the world and the growing strength of the struggle inside the country, the White rules of South Africa were forced to open negotiations to end the policy of apartheid. They released Nelson Mandela, who was imprisoned for about 26 years. After the release, he became the indomitable symbol of the struggle. Many obnoxious laws were abolished and the government decided to frame a new constitution, which would give all South Afric
Ans the right to vote. The right to vote was exercised in 1994 elections by all South Afric
Ans, a new non-racist and democratic government came to power in South Africa. Nelson Mandela was elected president of the country and the government of National Unity came into existence.

Q21. What was Hitler's concept of New World? (2Marks)

Ans.21 The Nazis extolled the German people as the purest representatives of the Aryan race, even as the 'chosen people'. Superior to all other nationalities, they were supposedly born to rule the world. Hitler's 'New World Order' implied the establishment of German rule over other nations for many-many years to come.

Or

Write a brief note on Spanish Civil War.

Ans.The Spanish Civil War was the first victim of the joint German- Italian aggression in Europe. The victorious Popular Front in the elections of 1936 which introduced reforms was much to the dislike of the Falange and other right-wing parties their allies and army generals who hatched a coup on July 17, 1936, in garrison towns throughout Spain. General Franco, leading forces he had brought from Morocco gradually assumed the captaincy of the Nationalists. On Oct. 1, 1936, he was named head of state and set up a government in Burgos. By March 28 all of the Republican armies had begun to disband and surrender, and Nationalist forces entered Madrid on that day.

Q.19. What is meant by "Truman Doctrine and the Policy of Brinkm
Anship"? (5 Marks)

Ans.19 After the end of the Second World War, Winston Churchill fired the first shot for the Cold War at the University of Fulton in US. An ideological demarcation of the world was made, under which Eastern Europe and the Western Europe were brought. The US decision to intervene in the Greek Civil War may be considered as formally ushering in the Cold War. President Truman, while asking the Congress for $400 million as military and economic aid to the Greek government, made a policy statement on March 12, 1947 was called 'Truman Doctrine'. This proclaimed communism as the threat to the "Free World", which the US, as the head of the "Free World", would not allow to succeed anywhere in the world. This Doctrine became the basis of the foreign policy of the United States for about four decades and every conflict in the world was seen in terms of a struggle between the US and the Soviet Union.

In 1959 the US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles came out with the 'Doctrine of Brinkm
Anship' which meant pushing the Soviet Union on the brink of war to force her to grant concessions. This is nothing but the extension of the 'Truman Doctrine' in the US foreign policy to contend the exp
Ansion of Communism.

Or

Describe the main developments in the history of Vietnam from
1945-75.

Ans. The end of World War II opened the way for the return of French rule to Indochina. Despite the ties he had forged within the American Intelligence community, and his professed respect for democratic ideals, Ho Chi Minh was unable to convince Washington to recognise the legitimacy of his independence movement against the French. The French and the US forces expected to defeat the Vietnamese armies easily but after eight years of fighting and $2.5 billion in U.S. aid, the French lost a crucial battle at Dienbienphu - and with it, their Asian empire.
With a goal of stopping the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, America replaced France in South Vietnam - supporting autocratic President Ngo Dinh Diem until his own generals turned against him in a coup that brought political chaos to Saigon.

With Ho Chi Minh determination to reunite Vietnam, Lyndon Baines Johnson determination to prevent it and South Vietnam on the verge of collapse, the stage was set for massive escalation of the undeclared Vietnam War.
In two years, the Johnson Administration's troop build-up dispatched 1.5 million Americ
Ans to Vietnam to fight a war they found baffling, tedious, exciting, deadly and unforgettable.

IWhile American and Vietnamese soldiers continued to clash in battle, diplomats in Paris argued about making peace. After more than four years, they reached an accord that proved to be a preface to further bloodshed.
Through troubled years of controversy and violence, US casualties mounted, victory remained elusive, and American opinion moved from general approval to general dissatisfaction with the Vietnam War. South Vietnamese leaders believed that America would never let them go down to defeat - a belief that died as North Vietnamese tanks smashed into Saigon on April 30, 1975, and the long war ended with South Vietnam's surrender.

Q.20. Write a brief note on Cuban Missile Crisis.(8 Marks)

Ans.20 The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war. The United States armed forces were at their highest state of readiness ever and Soviet field commanders in Cuba were prepared to use battlefield nuclear weapons to defend the island if it was invaded. Luckily, thanks to the bravery of two men, President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khruschev, war was averted.

In 1962, the Soviet Union was desperately behind the United States in the arms race. Soviet missiles that were only powerful enough to be launched against Europe but U.S. missiles were capable of striking the entire Soviet Union. In late April 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev conceived the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba. A deployment in Cuba would double the Soviet strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to a potential U.S. attack against the Soviet Union.

Meanwhile, Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend his island nation from an attack by the U.S. Ever since the failed Bay Of Pigs invasion in 1961, Castro felt a second attack was inevitable. Consequently, he approved of Khrushchev's plan to place missiles on the island. In the summer of 1962 the Soviet Union worked quickly and secretly to build its missile installations in Cuba.

For the United States, the crisis began on October 15, 1962 when reconnaissance photographs revealed Soviet missiles under construction in Cuba. Early the next day, President John Kennedy was informed of the missile installations. Kennedy immediately organized the EX COMM, a group of his twelve most important advisors to handle the crisis. After seven days of guarded and intense debate within the upper echelons of government, Kennedy concluded to impose a naval quarantine around Cuba. He wished to prevent the arrival of more Soviet offensive weapons on the island. On October 22, Kennedy announced the discovery of the missile installations to the public and his decision to quarantine the island. He also proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be regarded as an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union and demanded that the Soviets remove all of their offensive weapons from Cuba.

Then on the 26th October, EX-COMM heard from Khrushchev in an impassioned letter. He proposed removing Soviet missiles and personnel if the U.S. would guarantee not to invade Cuba. October 27 was the worst day of the crisis. A U-2 was shot down over Cuba and EX-COMM received a second letter from Khrushchev demanding the removal of U.S. missiles in Turkey in exchange for Soviet missiles in Cuba. Attorney General Robert Kennedy suggested ignoring the second letter and contacted Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin to tell him of the U.S. agreement with the first.
Tensions finally began to ease on October 28 when Khrushchev announced that he would dismantle the installations and return the missiles to the Soviet Union, expressing his trust that the United States would not invade Cuba. Further negotiations were held to implement the October 28 agreement, including a United States demand that Soviet light bombers be removed from Cuba, and specifying the exact form and conditions of United States assurances not to invade Cuba. Hence, the crises averted.

OR

Q. Describe the main features of the system of apartheid and the development that led to its collapse in South Africa.

Ans. The Republic of South Africa since 1961 was manned by a government, which was considered as the most oppressive regimes in the world in the twentieth century. It was under the exclusive control of white minority practising the worst form of racism. Under the system the apartheid established in South Africa, all people were classified and separated on a separate area. The non-Whites over 80 percent of the population, were denied the right to vote, strikes were banned. Each group had to live in a separate area. There were separate schools and universities, separate theatres, separate shopping centres, separate coaches in trains for whites and blacks and others. Mixed marriages were declared illegal and all dissent was banned under what was called the Suppression of Communism Act. The best lands in the country were under the control of the Whites who had all the economic and political power.

The system of apartheid created ripples throughout the world and most countries banned all relation with South Africa. The United Nation called for the imposition of military and economic sanctions against South Africa and under pressure from world opinion and from their own people, the Western countries also began to apply these sanctions. In 1960, resorting to brute force dispersed an apartheid rally and in the subsequent years this state of affairs went on continuously. The African National Congress which was formed in 1912, adopted "The Freedom Carter" that enunciates equality on par with Whites in all spheres of life. In the course of time the ANC withered its non-violent struggle and resorted to armed struggle under the leadership of Nelson Mandela.

With her almost total isolation in the world and the growing strength of the struggle inside the country, the White rules of South Africa were forced to open negotiations to end the policy of apartheid. They released Nelson Mandela, who was imprisoned for about 26 years. After the release, he became the indomitable symbol of the struggle. Many obnoxious laws were abolished and the government decided to frame a new constitution, which would give all South Afric
Ans the right to vote. The right to vote was exercised in 1994 elections by all South Afric
Ans, a new non-racist and democratic government came to power in South Africa. Nelson Mandela was elected president of the country and the government of National Unity came into existence.

Q21. What was Hitler's concept of New World? (2Marks)

Ans.21 The Nazis extolled the German people as the purest representatives of the Aryan race, even as the 'chosen people'. Superior to all other nationalities, they were supposedly born to rule the world. Hitler's 'New World Order' implied the establishment of German rule over other nations for many-many years to come.

Or

Write a brief note on Spanish Civil War.

Ans.The Spanish Civil War was the first victim of the joint German- Italian aggression in Europe. The victorious Popular Front in the elections of 1936 which introduced reforms was much to the dislike of the Falange and other right-wing parties their allies and army generals who hatched a coup on July 17, 1936, in garrison towns throughout Spain. General Franco, leading forces he had brought from Morocco gradually assumed the captaincy of the Nationalists. On Oct. 1, 1936, he was named head of state and set up a government in Burgos. By March 28 all of the Republican armies had begun to disband and surrender, and Nationalist forces entered Madrid on that day.

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